FROM MESOPOTAMIA to the MARSHMALLOW MAN
This was the final essay I handed in for my first-ever university design course!
INSTRUCTIONS:
"Write a 2,500-word essay on the history of an invention. Ideally it will focus on an invention that spans time and numerous cultures to reveal that communication and collaboration are evident throughout the history of innovation."
All written works and illustrations included below in this article are produced by me, Amanda Yingcharoen. The class, DESN1004, was taught by Professor Eric Schuldenfrei.
Appropriate citations are provided underneath the written works for the sources used during my research process.
introduction
The field of gastronomy is an ever-expanding world of exquisite high-end restaurants alongside hidden gems of smaller vendors with generations-old family recipes nuzzled in dilapidated alleyways, serving not only food but also the culture behind these dishes that span back centuries. Through gastronomy, food transformed from a necessity to an artistic pursuit for many, and with art comes subjectivity.
Strangely enough, much of the weight of the culinary world’s reputation rests upon the shoulders of Michelin–the very same Michelin that produces tires. How did everyone collectively agree to entrust the judgment of countless restaurants around the world to a brand that hardly has any connection to food? A couple of weeks ago, I was enjoying a hot delicious bowl of Pho as the cold began to descend on Hong Kong, and I was struck with the very same question. After much deliberation and research came this essay, in which the origin of the Michelin Guide is explored as well as its widely overlooked cultural significance.
Don't Reinvent the Wheel
Our journey began back in 4000-3500 BC, as potters in Mesopotamia began to put together pieces of wood, chiseled stones, and terracotta into a round disk approximately two to three feet wide. An indentation was made in the center of the underside of the disk, allowing the piece to be balanced on top of a stationary center point that it would rotate around when pushed by hand or foot. This was, debatably, the first emergence of the man-made wheel.
Contrary to popular belief, the wheel was not invented for chariots or any other transportation use. Even without wheeled transportation, this invention still spread rapidly across the ancient world. The Sumerians, Greeks, Chinese, Romans, Egyptians, Persians, and Byzantines began adopting the pottery wheel because it allowed them to produce vases, cups, and other containers at a rapid pace that was unachievable by handcraft alone.
The pottery wheel became so integral to certain cultures that mythologies were constructed around them. For example, in ancient Egypt, Khnum the god of fertility was said to shape humans from the Nile River’s clay using a pottery wheel. Though the saying “Don’t reinvent the wheel” is commonly used today, it remains unknown who actually came up with the idea in the first place. It is a mystery which of the aforementioned civilizations invented the wheel, or whether it began developing concurrently in different parts of the world.
Despite this historical oversight, soon after the conception of the wheel, wheeled vehicles appeared in the Middle East, Eastern Europe, and Asia, with the invention of the wheelbarrow mostly being accredited to the Ancient Greeks. Initially, these carts had wheels and axles that rotated together. However, they faced difficulties in mobility, especially upon turning, so the design was revised; instead, a fixed axle was used in combination with a free wheel that rotated around it, allowing the vehicle to turn corners more efficiently.
Over a millennium later, around 2000 BC in Turkey, the wheel was refined to a form we are familiar with today: the spoked wheel. Previously, wheels would be made with slabs of material, making them heavy and difficult to transport. The spokes made wheels much lighter and more efficient for use, completing the basic form of our modern wheel.
Following the Tracks
Wheels alone seem to get the job done in terms of transportation, and they did so for thousands of years, though not without certain flaws. Carrying around heavy loads over a long period of time will wear down any wheel, no matter what material it was built from. Furthermore, the uneven surfaces these wheels tread upon cause them to wear unevenly. Even small rocks can misshape wheels, requiring them to be replaced, which is oftentimes a troublesome and expensive task. This begs for a disposable layer around the wheel that can be replaced at a lower cost than the wheel itself.
Hence, wheels made a significant transition into tires as Celtic chariots around 800-450 BC added iron rims around the traditional spoked wheel. Metal tires were used with wheels on trains running on major railways. Wagons also adopted them due to their affordable and long-lasting nature, though much to the discomfort of their riders. On the other side of the world, Native Americans have discovered rubber, the material we use in modern-day tires, since around 1600 BC. Though it was not until Charles Goodyear came along in the 1830s that tires and rubber finally crossed paths. After accidentally spilling a mixture of rubber and sulfur onto a hot stove, Goodyear discovered the process of vulcanization, using sulfur to heat up rubber, creating a firm material that can withstand the harsh conditions wheels have to endure.
With the Industrial Revolution hastening the process of innovation, this cutting-edge rubber material was being utilized in every place imaginable; from shoes to sealant and, of course, tires. A mere half a century later in 1882, John Boyd Dunlop invented the first commercially-available pneumatic tire made from rubber. His air-filled tires were first used in bicycles, but were soon adopted by cars and remained instrumental to the automobile industry to this day, but not without taking its own fair share of innovative strides.
Next Stop: Tire-Town
The boom of the Industrial Revolution saw the rise of the automobile industry. In the 1890s, brothers André and Édouard Michelin inherited the Compagnie Générale des Établissements Michelin from their grandfather in the small town of Clermont-Ferrand, now nicknamed “Tire-Town”. At the time, the company, whose main products were farm equipment and an assortment of various vulcanized rubber goods, was on the verge of bankruptcy following its founder’s death.
After an encounter with an unfortunate flat-tired cyclist, the Michelins recognized the importance of having easily detachable tires allowing for faster repair. Fascinated by Dunlop’s invention of the pneumatic tire, the Michelins changed their course of direction for the company and chose to focus solely on producing tires. After a series of prototypes, Édouard successfully patented the first readily detachable pneumatic tire.
With one roadblock surpassed, another arises. The brothers realized that the domestic market for their invention was very limited at the time. By 1900, there were less than 3,000 cars on the roads of France, and the Michelins wanted much more than that since more cars meant higher demand for their tires.
Inspired by previously published guidebooks such as Murray’s Handbook for Travellers and the German Baedeker Guides, the Michelins opted for an unconventional solution to their conundrum; they invented the Michelin Guide, an all-around guidebook for motorists in France, complete with restaurant recommendations, instructions for tire care, locations of hotels, gas stations, as well as mechanics throughout the country. What sets their guide apart from the aforementioned books was that it focused specifically on motorists, a gap in the market that was yet to be filled since cars were a relatively new invention.
The gastronomy section grew in popularity with the readers, and in response, the Michelins recruited a team of anonymous inspectors to review restaurants that they wanted to add to the guide. This led to the establishment of the Boulevard of Itineraries, a mapmaking office that the company now refers to as the "internet before its time.” The office produced hundreds of up-to-date maps of France, spanning both urban and rural areas throughout the entire country, and their hard work culminated in the largest collection of maps of France at the time.
As the brothers’ business was booming at the start of the twentieth century, World War I rattled Europe, causing the Michelins to temporarily halt the publishing of their guidebooks. Though work continued on it as normal after the war, their business was paused once again as the second World War approached. Little did they know that this time around they would have much more to contribute to the war effort.
Foie Gras, Crepes, and
the Battle of Normandy
It was the Spring of 1944. Britain and the Allied Forces were preparing to land in Normandy, France in an effort to liberate Europe. Unfortunately, there was one significant issue the Allies were concerned with: all the road signs in the region were destroyed by the occupying forces, making navigating the area practically impossible for their soldiers. After much research, they turned to the Michelins for help. Once again, the Michelin Guide acts as an unconventional solution.
Although the publishing of the Michelin Guide was halted due to the war, their latest edition at the time, the 1939 edition, that the Boulevard of Itineraries so painstakingly put together, was sent across the Atlantic to be printed in Washington DC. This special reprint edition was marked “For Official Use Only” and is now a highly valued collector’s item in the field of World War II memorabilia. A couple of months later on June 6, Allied troops carried these guides as they stormed the beaches of Normandy. After the liberation of Paris in August of the same year, Michelin's Boulevard of Itineraries regrouped to produce maps of Northern France, Belgium, and Germany for the Allies.
Star Power
In the present day, the Michelin Guide has expanded its coverage beyond France and now accounts for establishments in 23 countries, and is put on sale all around the world. Nonetheless, much of Michelin’s rich history remains unknown to the patrons of their star-approved restaurants as well as the drivers who traverse roads around the world on their tires.
The title of the Michelin Star has grown in fame to become a household name since its invention over a century ago. The concept of the star itself is nothing more than a couple of drops of ink printed on paper, or perhaps a poster in front of a restaurant at most, and it is certainly debatable whether it counts as an invention at all. So, why was the Michelin Guide chosen as the topic of this essay?
To me, the allure of the Micheline Guide more lies with the idea behind it rather than the physical embodiment of the guide itself. What fascinated me was the Michelin brothers’ lateral thinking process in conceptualizing the book. Rather than attacking the effects of the problem, being a lack of interest in purchasing tires, they recognized the cause of it: people simply saw no point in getting a car. Back then it was expensive and there was hardly a reason to venture to the opposite side of the country since people were unaware of what was waiting for them there.
Nowadays, we take the internet and its endless possibilities for granted. Carrying around so much information in our pockets unlocks unspeakable potential for countless people as long as they have a WiFi connection. Initially, the Michelin Guide was given away for free, granting its readers a similar sense of boundlessness. Of the numerous people who picked up the books free of charge, a lucky few will be fortunate enough to be able to afford a car, and the Michelins gave them a justification for such a purchase.
Despite having such an intriguing story behind it, the embodiment of the Michelin Guide seems relatively mundane. Why is it that these stars are worth so much to the culinary industry? With the company’s longstanding history, having been established over a century ago and surviving both World Wars, the unwavering standard of the Michelin Guide is one that is difficult for rivals to compete with. Additionally, the exclusivity of the Michelin Star adds to its already high demand.
In contrast to other popular food rating services, such as Zagat and Yelp which rely on reviews from the restaurants’ diners, Michelin sources its reports only from qualified food critics. The company claims that their anonymous inspectors are “all full-time employees who are former restaurant and hospitality professionals,” cementing their promise to solely award stars to chefs of the highest caliber. Establishments that have already earned a star, or even multiple, are not safe either, as they continue to be repeatedly re-assessed annually before the release of each year’s guide.
Furthermore, a unique aspect of Michelin as a company is that their guide was not made to be independently profitable, but merely as an accessory to increase their sale of tires. This means that the guide can continue to be offered at an affordable cost, while the company upkeeps its high standards and rigorous process of food critique with funds from their tire sales. This uncompromising principle of quality contributes significantly to the guide’s well-respected reputation.
Whether intentionally or not, the Michelins have invented a culinary metric whose ethos is unrivaled by any other. At the core of the Michelin Guide lies the importance of accessible information. It is undeniable that the guide was founded on elitist ideals, with most of their target demographic consisting of upper-class French elites who can afford to purchase automobiles fresh off the assembly line. Despite that, the guide was still offered at a low cost to the French, and later international, populous as a whole, regardless of class. Later on, they also came up with the “Bib Gourmand” section, specifically spotlighting affordable restaurants. To this day, Michelin continues to adapt alongside the modern world, with the newest addition to its rating system, The Green Star, being awarded to restaurants that are committed to sustainable practices.
By putting this information in the hands of countless people, numerous opportunities followed suit. The power of a minuscule star printed on paper can make or break a restaurant. It has been calculated that a business’ activities grow between 20-100% on average depending on the number of Michelin Stars they were granted. Furthermore, its reputation has significantly contributed to boosting French cuisine to the prominently high standard it is known for today.
The Michelins entrusted that people will be able to make a decision that is economically profitable to their company based on the information given by the Michelin Guide, skyrocketing their business to become the second-largest tire manufacturer in the world. They had faith in their invention of the replaceable pneumatic tire, a culmination of thousands of years of human ingenuity. At a time when information can be bought and sold at the click of a button, I believe that this model of subtle marketing produced from lateral thinking can be utilized with more potential than ever before.
Conclusion
The idea of a Michelin Star restaurant and Michelin-branded tires are now commonplace in our world, though few make the connection between the two–despite them harboring the same name. Not only did the Michelins invent a physical piece of machinery integral to modern-day transportation, but they also value the importance of the cause behind it. Throughout human history, the evolution of the wheel was driven by necessity, but the Michelins transformed that drive into art. Recognizing a similar pattern in gastronomy, they created a guide reflecting those values that have outlasted wars, famines, and centuries of innovation.
Within the greater saga of the world of innovation as a whole, spanning from the start of human civilization in Mesopotamia to today, Michelin’s branding marks a very important turning point. Prior to the brothers’ ingenious marketing method, wheels and tires were invented, improved, and subsequently streamlined for practical purposes. The utility of an invention was enough of a testament to its merit.
However, the Industrial Revolution saw the global market teem up with copious amounts of newborn businesses, and the competition rendered efficacy alone to no longer be enough justification for purchasing a product. Realizing this, the Michelins focused on selling the complementary experience of fine dining instead, incorporating prestige into their branding. Nowadays, this method of marketing can be seen in many major companies. For instance, Apple does not sell phones, they sell a pristine user experience; Pixar does not make movies, they make nostalgia-inducing sentiments. Michelin shifted the focus of innovation away from practicality and onto the unique experience offered by the brand, a practice that would forever change how humans view innovation.
The Michelin Guide is a testimony to the importance of not only the physical attributes of an invention but also the cultural significance it holds. Now every time you see the iconic Marshmallow Man, whether on the door of a restaurant or on the side of a tire, know that behind him lies a rich history spanning over millennia of humanity’s boundless ingenuity.
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